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Writing
up Research
Referencing
This
page covers:
What
is referencing?
What
must I reference?
Different
referencing systems
Which
system should I use?
Referencing
online sources
Quoting
and paraphrasing
Plagiarism
WHAT
IS REFERENCING?
Referencing
(also called citing or documenting) your sources means systematically showing
what information or ideas you are quoting or
paraphrasing, and where they come from. You are entitled to use someone
else's words, ideas or information in your work - and in fact you have to
do so - but you must show that they are not your own by indicating their source.
Referencing
systems vary between different fields of study and between different journals or
publishers within a field of study. Despite this variation, all referencing
systems have the same basic components:
-
an
in-text reference to show that a piece of information, idea,
quotation, etc. you have included in your writing belongs to another writer.
It is always designed to be short because it is interrupting the text, and
is usually in parentheses:
In
recent years, there has been a rapid increase in car sales in Thailand
(Honda 1995).
OR
In recent years,
there has been a rapid increase in car sales in Thailand (Honda, 1995).
OR
In recent years,
there has been a rapid increase in car sales in Thailand (Honda 135).
OR
In recent years
there has been a rapid increase in car sales in Thailand [1].
OR
In recent years
there has been a rapid increase in car sales in Thailand1.
-
The
reader then uses the in-text reference to find full bibliographic
information (about
when and where the source was published, and by which publisher) either
at the end of the page or more usually at the end of the paper (as a
footnote), thesis or book (depending on the referencing system used).
A
referencing system that in the text uses the author's family name will always
list sources on the references page alphabetically by author's family name; a
referencing system that uses numerical in-text references will usually list
sources in the order in which they appear in the writing (not by author's name).
This enables the reader to find sources easily.
PROBLEMS
 |
Mixing
two referencing systems. If you are using (name year)
for your in-text references, do not list your sources by number on your
references page because your reader will be looking for the author's name.
Similarly, if you are using numerical in-text references, you cannot list
your sources on your references page by author name - your reader will be
looking for numbers. |
|
What
should you do if there is more than one author listed? For the in-text
reference, for a paper with two authors list by paper by both (for
example, Shaw and Clayton, 1996), but for a paper with more than two
authors list by the main author and add et al. (literally "and the
others"), e.g. (Jones, Suzuki and Chan 1997) is written as (Jones et
al., 1997). Note: do not change the order of the names, i.e. you cannot
write (Chan et al., 1997) because Chan is not the main author. |
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What
should I do if there is no author listed? Some articles are credited
to organizations rather than to individuals (e.g. many software manuals)
so the organization is listed as the "author." Many on-line
materials do not have an author listed: again, often the organization is
used or, if no organization owns the material, then it is referred to by
its title. See the links below for more details for
both electronic and print materials. |
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Adapting
existing referencing systems for your own work. Why make work for
yourself by adapting an existing referencing style? Use a referencing
style that is commonly used in your field and use it yourself. Besides,
strange, new styles will only confuse your reader (and as a student, your
readers are your professors), and are often used just because the writer
didn't bother to follow an existing referencing style! [Ask your advisor] |
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What
should you do if you want to use information by Writer X that you have
found quoted or paraphrased in Writer Y? Your first choice should be
to refer to the original source. For example: you find a book by Honda
published in 1993 that says: "A study by Singh (1990) has shown that
60% of clowns suffer from chronic depression". If you want to use
this information, try to find the study by Singh and read it for yourself.
If this is difficult or impractical, you should indicate where you found
the information. You cannot attribute the information simply to Honda (as
that writer was not the person who did the research) and you cannot
attribute it to Singh (unless you have read Singh's study). Instead, in
your research, you will write something like this: |
Previous
research supports this argument, since it has been found that 60% of clowns
are sufferers of chronic depression (Singh, 1990, cited in Honda, 1993).
This
shows that you found the information from Singh in a piece by Honda and that
you did not read the original, i.e. if there's a mistake, it's Honda's not
yours!
For
examples, see the section below.
WHAT
MUST I REFERENCE?
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all
work done by other researchers, and that you want to refer to in your own
writing. |
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other
writers' words |
You must
reference (in other words, indicate the source of) all information and ideas
from existing work that you use in your writing, whether you use the source's
words or your own. All information that is not referenced is assumed to be
general knowledge (in your field) or to come directly from you, so neglecting to
reference someone's work often means you are leading your reader to believe that
the work is your own (see the section on plagiarism for
more details about this).
WHAT
DO I NOT NEED TO REFERENCE?
|
general
knowledge (e.g. that George W. Bush is the President of the U.S.A., that
China has a larger population than Thailand), |
|
information
that is common knowledge in your field, and |
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ideas
that are definitely your
own, and findings or insights from your own research. |
PROBLEMS
|
What
should you do if you find that your idea has already been published by
another writer?
Acknowledge the other writer's work, for example by
writing in your reference something like: (see also Wong, 1993). You must
not ignore the other author's work, because your readers may think that
you have either taken the idea or information without referencing (this is
plagiarism) or that you do not have a good idea
of the literature in your field. |
|
What
should you do if you want to use an adapted version of someone else's
work?
You must still cite the original work. For example, maybe you
are using a diagram from an article by Wattana published in 1996, but you
have altered it. Reference the adapted diagram as (adapted from Wattana
1996). You can also use other terms in order to specify the exact
relationship between the source and the version you have presented e.g.
based on Wattana 1996, summarized from Wattana 1996, etc. |
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What
should you do if several authors have published very similar information
or ideas?
You can indicate that the idea or information can be found in
the work of more than one author, e.g. Though in fact many authors have
described this kind of system (for example, Hynes, 1989; Wu, 19991; Lefrère,
1994) little work has been done on extending it to application to robotic
systems. If you only reference one author, then your readers may assume
that only one author has published this on this topic, or that you have
not read the literature thoroughly and are not aware of the other work
published in this area. Use your referencing to give your readers a clear
idea of the situation, not a distorted one, and to demonstrate your
knowledge. |
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Should
you avoid referencing other people's work?
Referencing other people's work
is NOT a sign of weakness in their own work. In fact, the opposite is
true. If you write up your research with no references to previous work,
you are indicating to your reader that you are not familiar with the
research that has already been done, and are therefore undermining your
own credibility and the validity of your own work. Including references is
a way of demonstrating your knowledge of your field - therefore you
must refer to previous work. |
|
What
if I find exactly what I want to say in other people's writing?
It depends
on what it is; if someone else has done the same thesis as you, then
you're going to have to change your topic, or find something new to say
about what you're doing. |
If
it is someone else's particularly succinct expression, but fits perfectly what
you have been trying to say, you can quote directly, citing the page reference
as well as the author and year of publication.
DIFFERENT
REFERENCING SYSTEMS
Chicago
style: this referencing system is used widely in science and technology, and in
some fields of the humanities. The in-text reference uses the family name of the
author/s plus the year the work was published:
In-text
reference:
(Smith 1978)
Note: no comma between name and date
OR . . . according to
Smith (1978)
If
there are more than two authors, generally the name of the first is used
followed by the words "et al." (which means "and others").
E.g.
The
yield has substantially increased since 1993 (Wong et al. 1997).
References
page:
This page comes at the end of the paper, thesis or book (but before any
appendices) and has full bibliographic information. In other words, it provides
all the publication (or other information about the source) that readers need to
either find it themselves or to assess its validity. It contains a list arranged
alphabetically by the last name of the main author and only includes works that
have been referred to in the text (i.e. that have in-text references. E.g.
Smith
P. 1988. An argument against wet paddy mechanization of wet paddy
agriculture. Journal of Rice Production, 8:
34-60.
Wong, X., M. Singh and P. Duncan. 1997. Increasing rice yields in wet paddy.
Agricultural Review 15: 167-191.
For
full information, see The Chicago Manual of Style (available in languages'
Learning Resource Center, Room 236). For example for sources not mentioned here,
such as anonymous sources, interviews, TV programs.
APA
(American Psychological Association) Style: this system is primarily used
by those writing in the social sciences. It is similar to the Chicago style
outlined above. For more information, consult the University of Southern
Mississippi on-line
tip-sheet (which also includes information for referencing electronic
sources).
In-text
reference:
(Smith, 1978) Note: comma between name and date
For referencing a quotation or specific part of a source: "Development
will be slowed by such a move" (Smith, 1988, p. 80)
References
page:
As for the Chicago style, only works referenced in the text are included, and
are listed alphabetically by main author's last name. E.g.
Smith,
P. (1988). An argument against wet paddy mechanization of wet paddy
agriculture. Journal of Rice Production, 8,
34-60.
Wong, X., Singh M. & Duncan, P. (1997). Increasing rice yields in wet
paddy.
Agricultural Review, 15, 167-191.
For
information about citing electronic sources using the APA system, see the University
of Vermont's webpage.
CBE
(Council of Biology Editors) Style: This style is predominantly used by
writers in the natural sciences. It is rather different from the Chicago and APA
styles because references are numbered.
In-text
reference:
As Smith (1) has argued, Wong et al.'s (2) theory is still in need of
development because wet paddy yield in the area remained low (3).
For
the references page, sources are listed in the order in which they appeared in
the text i.e. (1) then (2) then (3) etc.
1.
Smith, P. An argument against wet paddy mechanization of wet paddy
agriculture. Journal of Rice Production 8: 34-60; 1988.
2. Wong, X.; Singh M.; Duncan, P. Increasing rice yields in wet paddy.
Agricultural Review 15: 167-191; 1997.
3. Ahmed, M. Causes of low rice yields of the Mekong Delta area. New York:
Random House; 1996.
Note:
3 is a book, not a journal article so the publisher and place of publication are
listed.
Other
referencing systems: other systems use endnotes (that appear at the end of the
article or thesis) or footnotes (that appear at the bottom of the page on which
the in-text reference appears. The in-text reference may take the form or a
number in brackets (e.g. Rice yields have consistently fallen [9]) or a
superscript number (e.g. Rice yields have consistently fallen 9). As with CBE
style, sources are numbered according to the order in which they appear in the
text, and in the endnotes or footnotes sources are listed in the same order.
Note: some systems mix referencing foot/endnotes with foot/endnotes that provide
additional information to the text, e.g.
1.
Smith, P. An argument against wet paddy mechanization of wet paddy
agriculture. Journal of Rice Production 8: 34-60; 1988.
2. Wong, X.; Singh M.; Duncan, P. Increasing rice yields in wet paddy.
Agricultural Review 15: 167-191; 1997.
3. It has also been argued that the official figures for crop yields are
unrealistically
high, and that the true figures could be as much as 30%
lower in some cases.
4. Ahmed, M. Causes of low rice yields of the Mekong Delta area. New York:
Random House; 1996.
Other
referencing systems: other systems use endnotes (that appear at the end of the
article or thesis) or footnotes (that appear at the bottom of the page on which
the in-text reference appears. The in-text reference may take the form or a
number in brackets (e.g. Rice yields have consistently fallen [9]) or a
superscript number (e.g. Rice yields have consistently fallen 9). As with CBE
style, sources are numbered according to the order in which they appear in the
text, and in the endnotes or footnotes sources are listed in the same order.
Note: some systems mix referencing foot/endnotes with foot/endnotes that provide
additional information to the text, e.g.
1.
Smith, P. An argument against wet paddy mechanization of wet paddy
agriculture. Journal of Rice Production 8: 34-60; 1988.
2. Wong, X.; Singh M.; Duncan, P. Increasing rice yields in wet paddy.
Agricultural Review 15: 167-191; 1997.
3. It has also been argued that the official figures for crop yields are
unrealistically
high, and that the true figures could be as much as 30%
lower in some cases.
4. Ahmed, M. Causes of low rice yields of the Mekong Delta area. New York:
Random House; 1996.
WHICH
REFERENCING SYSTEM SHOULD I USE?
With
so many referencing systems available, it can be difficult to decide which
system to use. Here are some tips:
|
talk
to your advisor, who will be able to tell you if your School or
program has a preference, and which system is most commonly used. |
|
look
at current academic journals in your field of study to see how they ask
writers to reference sources. |
|
look
at recent theses or dissertations in your field of study in your institution.
Bear in mind, though, that some students' referencing work may not be as
reliable as that of published authors. |
|
bear
in mind that the numbering systems (e.g. CBE) are growing less popular
that the parenthetical Chicago and APA styles, which are generally easier
for readers to use. |
REFERENCING
ONLINE SOURCES
Referencing
systems for electronic sources are becoming standardized (so do not try and
reference sources by inventing a system yourself or adapting an existing
non-electronic system!). The in-text reference should follow the same format as
for printed sources; however, the bibliographic information on your references
page will be different and generally requires you to include the type of
resource plus when it was accessed, as well as the URL for on-line sources. For
example,
American
Council of Learned Societies (2000). "Fulbright Economics Teaching Program,
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam". Available online:
http://www.acls.org/pub-list.htm.
(Downloaded: May 10,2000).
For
further information, consult the following links:
QUOTING
AND PARAPHRASING
A
quotation is the use of your source's exact words in your work. A quotation may
be as short as one word but, if that word is significant, it must be put in
quotation marks and referenced.
|
Quotations
should include
the exact words of your source inside quotation marks, e.g.
"Everything we do is an experience of a kind" (Kenny 1996: 45).
If you look in Kenny 1996 at page 45 you will find the words Everything we
do is an experience of a kind with no alterations or omissions. However,
you can make changes, if necessary, as follows: |
-
leaving
out a word or words:
ORIGINAL
"In many academic circles in America, literary translation is still
considered a secondary activity, mechanical rather than creative, neither
worthy of serious critical attention nor of general interest to the
public" (Gentzler 1993: 34).
SHORTENED
"In many academic circles in America, literary translation is still
considered a secondary activity . . . neither worthy of serious critical
attention nor of general interest to the public" (Gentzler 1993: 34).
No
matter how many words you take out, you only use three dots (except if the
quoted sentence comes to an end, in which case you use three plus a full
stop, i.e. four). Also, there is no need to use en ellipsis ( . . . ) at the
beginning and end of each quotation.
Note
the use of page numbers here - in this case, the
quote is borrowed from page 34 of Gentzler's 1993 publication. You should
always give page numbers when you quote text directly from a source.
-
making
small alterations/clarifications:
ORIGINAL
Raymond (1996) argues that, "The people never knew what good food
was" (p.245).
ALTERED
Raymond argues that "[t]he people [in England] never knew what good
food was" (1996: 245). Here the writer clarifies who "The
people" are, and changes capital T to small to fit the writer's
sentence structure.
|
Quotations
should be
included in your sentence. For example: |
INCORRECT
"Everything we do is an experience of a kind" (Kenny 1996: 45).
CORRECT
It can be argued that "[e]verything we do is an experience of a
kind" (Kenny 1996: 45). Here the writer has included Kenny's quotation in
his/her own sentence.
The
quotation should fit grammatically into your sentence - so choose the point at
which to start.
|
|
Quotations
must
be indicated with quotation marks (" . . .") unless you are
using a long quotation, in which case it should be set in an indented
block |
This
is a long quotation and so is not shown by quotation marks but by being set
in a block that is indented and usually single-spaced. The exact style of
indentation (e.g. indented on one side or both, indented by three or five
spaces) will depend on the style you are using in your work (e.g. APA, CBE,
etc.) (Brightwell, 1998)
|
|
Quotations
should be kept short and kept to a minimum (i.e. only use quotations when the
words themselves are important). Avoid using a large number of quotations
as they mean you are letting your sources present ideas instead of you
presenting your own. |
Paraphrasing
means putting an author's ideas or information into your own words:
Original
"This has led to the conclusion that, out of the US population at large,
90% watch television to excess" (Wu, 1994).
Paraphrased
"In contradiction to Suzuki’s claim, Wu argues that 90% of Americans watch
too much television (1994)".
There is no need to use Wu's exact words as it is
his information (not his words) that is important here. Notice too that with
paraphrasing it is easier to comment on the work you are referring to (e.g.
here it is compared to Suzuki's). It is also not usually necessary to give
page numbers when paraphrasing.
You
should be careful to indicate which are your ideas and which are the author's
by careful use of references and by where and how you break sentences. This is
a subtle art and you should look at published work for examples for how to do
this effectively.
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Paraphrasing
must
include page references. This is necessary, as you are claiming that
the quote you are reproducing is authoritative; the reader needs to be
able to check the exact point in the text to which you refer. |
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Paraphrasing
is more generally used than quoting as it enables you to comment
on, evaluate and summarize information; |
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Paraphrasing
can
be used with quotations (i.e. you can quote within a paraphrase); |
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Paraphrasing
must
always be referenced (because you are using someone else's
ideas or information); |
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Paraphrasing
is never enclosed by quotation marks or indentation; |
|
Paraphrasing
does not mean a word-for-word rewrite of the original (usually you are
summarizing your source or highlighting one or more points). |
PLAGIARISM
This
means using someone else's words, ideas or information without referencing them
- in other words, presenting them as your own. Any work that is not referenced
is assumed to be yours, so ensure that this is true.
Plagiarism is a serious
academic offence and can result in penalties, including dismissal from the
Institute.
To avoid it, use quotations and
paraphrases with proper referencing. When you are reading, keep careful notes of
your sources, including all the bibliographic information that you need to write
a full reference for the sources.
FURTHER
REFERENCES ON REFERENCING
Milwaukee
School of Engineering
University of Wisconsin Madison Writing Center
Back
to the Writing up Research homepage
The
Basics of Good Writing
How to
reference
References
(for works cited in Writing up
Research)
Useful
writing links
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